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Survival Systems is committed to providing the best possible instruction in emergency underwater escape training. To reach this goal, we have developed the Modular Egress Training Simulator (METS™) to replicate marine compartments and specific aircraft configurations, and the METS™ is used in simulating and learning how to survive from a ditching situation or a marine accident. A natural extension of this training relates to the trials and evaluations on hazards, egress, and procedures relating to the improvement of aircraft and marine safety.
The scientific reports listed below demonstrate the wide range of Human Factors research that Survival Systems can offer. Such research includes conducting all types of helicopter and fast rescue craft underwater escape testing using a configuration of different seating arrangements, stroking seats, exits, and cabin configurations.
Different safety survival equipment such as NBC respirators, emergency breathing apparatus, and life jackets can be evaluated.
Survival Systems has a close affiliation with The CORD Group Limited, an onsite company that has a wave tank, an instrumented thermal manikin for measuring the CLO value of immersion suits and heat loss characteristics of other protective garments, and a RAMM manikin with an instrumented nose and mouth for evaluating the performance of lifejackets.
In conjunction with Dalhousie University, we conduct human R&D experiments for the marine and offshore oil industries on a wide range of topics such as evacuation, escape, and survival from oilrigs using TEMPSCs and the effect of survival suits and lifejackets on boarding liferafts.
Survival Systems’ staff involved in R&D have many years of experience in maritime, aviation, and submarine operations and are very competent to conduct your applied research.
Challenge us to work with you on your next R&D project to improve safety at sea.
If you would like to receive a copy of any of the research papers listed below please email trish@survivalsystems.info
Research and development projects in which Survival Systems has been involved include:
1. Disorientation in Helicopter Ditching and Rigid Inflatable Boat Capsizement: Training is Essential to Save Crews [2002] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.
This paper discusses the disorientation problems of escape from a rigid inflatable boat (RIB) that has been capsized. It makes comparisons with executing a ditched helicopter underwater escape and emphasizes the need for realistic training for both RIB and helicopter crafts.
2. Breath-holding Ability of Offshore Workers Inadequate to Ensure Escape from Ditched Helicopters [2001] (Abstract)
Cheung, S.S.; D’Eon, N.J.; Brooks, C.J.
Breath-holding ability of off-shore workers inadequate to ensure escape from ditched helicopters. Aviat Space Environ Med 2001; 72:912-8.
Background: Following a helicopter ditching in water, the survival rate of individuals not mortally injured by the impact ranges from 50-85%.
One possible cause for this low survival rate is that the crew and passengers cannot hold their breath underwater long enough to make the often difficult escape from an inverted and submerged helicopter.
Methods: We investigated pulmonary function, breath-holding times in air (BHTa) and water (BHTw) of 228 students enrolled in offshore survival courses required to work in either the offshore petroleum industry or in military marine aviation.
Comparisons were performed based on occupation, SCUBA experience, and smoking.
Results:
In 25°C pool water, the overall BHTw ranged from 5.4 to 120 s with a median of 37 s.
Of the 228 subjects, 34% had a BHTw less than the 28 s required for the complete evacuation of a Super Puma helicopter under ideal conditions.
No significant differences in BHTw were observed based on either smoking history (Non-Smoker, 41.5 ± 21.6 s; Smoker, 37.2 ± 20.2 s) or occupation (Novice, 37.5 ± 21.1 s; Offshore, 40.5 ± 21.1 s; Military, 45.2 ± 20.9 s).
However, SCUBA-trained individuals had a significantly longer BHTw (47.4 ± 21.6 s) than non-SCUBA (37.6 ± 20.6 s), as well as a greater force vital capacity (FVC), BHTa, and subjective comfort in water.
Conclusions:
It is concluded that the inability to breath-hold in emergency situations is a major contributor to the low survival rates of marine helicopter ditchings.
Therefore, efforts must be made to both decrease escape times and to increase survival time underwater.
3. Requirement for Emergency Breathing Systems (EBS) in Over-Water Helicopter and Fixed-Wing Aircraft, NATO AGARDograph [2001] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Tipton, M.J.
A research paper submitted to NATO Research & Technology Organization [AG-341].
This was a study to identify the requirements for an emergency breathing system for crew and passengers of a ditched helicopter, and the steps necessary in the evaluation, integration, procurement, and training essential to bring such a system into service [ISBN 92-837-1058-4].
4. What is the Survival Suit Designed to Do, and Will it Work for Me in the Event of a Ditching or Ship Abandonment? [2001] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; McCabe J.; Lamont, J.
Three hundred and fifty seven people attended a series of practical survival courses at Survival Systems Ltd., Dartmouth, Nova Scotia between January and June, 2001.
Each of the attendees earns their living either working on, or flying over water.
During the courses, they wore a variety of survival suits: a helicopter passenger suit; a marine, one-size-fits-all ship abandonment suit; or a military constant wear survival suit.
At the beginning and the end of the course, a questionnaire was administered to enquire about (a) the reasons for wearing such a suit, (b) the ergonomics of the suit, and (c) how much confidence they had that the suit would do its job in the case of ship abandonment or helicopter ditching.
Pre-course, little was known about the four stages of immersion, but the anecdotal evidence that there was general dissatisfaction with the suits was not generally borne out by the results.
Water integrity was better than expected; this can be attributed to better manufacturing procedures, fabrics and standards.
An interesting finding was that those people with small wrists or wearing a suit with slack fit of the wrist seal, benefited from tightening the seal with duct tape.
The opinions on the ergonomics of the suits followed a normal distribution curve, with the majority of people expressing a relatively good opinion. Most people had confidence that they would survive in them.
Post course, the degree of knowledge of the dangers of sudden cold water immersion had improved, but will require re-testing at a later date to investigate the retention factor.
5. The Basis for the Development of a Fuselage Evacuation Time for a Ditched Helicopter [2001] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Muir, H.C.; Gibbs, P.N.G.
The basis for the development of a fuselage evacuation time for a ditched helicopter. Aviat Space Environ Med 2001; 72:553-61.
Hypothesis: When a helicopter ditches or crashes in water, unless the buoyancy bags are inflated, it commonly sinks inverted.
Thus, crew and passengers must make an underwater escape. It is postulated that later passengers in the escape sequence do not have the breath-holding ability to conduct a successful escape, particularly if the water is cold. This contributes to the 20-50% mortality rate in survival accidents.
Methods:
There were 132 immersed subject evaluations which were conducted in daylight and darkness to measure escape times from a helicopter underwater escape trainer, configured to the Super Puma, seated for 15 and 18 passengers.
The subjects were highly experienced instructors or Navy clearance divers.
Results:
The time from when each subject’s head disappeared underwater until each subject surfaced and total fuselage evacuation time were measured and any problems hampering escape were noted.
Breath-holding for the last subject out ranged from 28 to 92 s.
An emergency breathing system was used by a minimum of four subjects each time and a maximum of 11 subjects in one condition.
The buoyancy of the survival suit was the principal component that hampered escape.
Conclusion:
Breath-holding times were too long for the later subjects to escape without resorting to an EBS, in spite of the fact that they were highly trained.
For regular crew and passengers flying over water, this would explain the high mortality, etc.
Therefore, a new helicopter standard should be developed requiring fuselage design to accommodate total evacuation with 20 s from underwater.
For current helicopters, where this cannot be achieved, passengers should be provided with some form of air supply, or, after ditching, the helicopter should be modified so that it will stay afloat on its side and retain an air space in the cabin.
6. Fast Rescue Craft Ditching Trainer [2000] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.
The greatest danger faced by crew and passengers in a Fast Rescue Craft (FRC), is capsizing and death from drowning.
In the event of a sudden capsize, the crew and passengers are hurled around the FRC. The most likely scenario is that the weather will be cold and miserable, the sea conditions poor, and the crew will be taken by surprise. Indeed, they may be in the process of doing a tricky over-the-side rescue. Thus, it is unlikely that anyone will have taken a good handhold on the FRC structure before the accident. Indeed, at that point, they may, for instance, be in the process of attempting to drag a victim into the FRC, and therefore have no handhold at all, and the coxswain may be concentrating on a complex maneuver to hold the boat steady. Therefore, people are likely to be physically injured by contact with parts of the FRC and will most certainly be disoriented from inversion and submersion. Sudden immersion in cold water will also produce an uncontrollable gasp reflex even if a good protective suit is worn. At present, with no training in inversion and immersion, only diving skills, comfort underwater, and some luck will prevent someone from drowning. As a result, a new fast rescue ditching trainer has been developed for coxswains and crew.
Contact Trish Tully, VP Sales & Marketing at Survival Systems Limited via email at trish@survivalsystems.info or phone 902 465 3888 x 129.
7. Underwater Disorientation as Induced by Two Helicopter Ditching Devices [2000] (Abstract)
Cheung, B; Hofer, K.; Brooks, C.J.; Gibbs, P.N.G.
Underwater Disorientation as induced by two helicopter ditching devices. Aviat Space Environ Med 2000; 71:879-88.
Spatial orientation is based on the integration of concordant and redundant information from the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems.
When a person is submerged underwater, somatosensory cues are reduced, and vestibular cues are ambiguous with respect to upright or inverted position. Visual cues may be lost as a result of reduced ambient light. Underwater disorientation has been cited as one of the major factors that could inhibit emergency egress after a helicopter ditching into water. One countermeasure to familiarize aircrew with underwater disorientation is emergency egress training. This study examined the relative degree of underwater disorientation induced by the Modular Egress Training Simulator (METS™) and the Shallow Water Egress Trainer (SWET).
Methods:
There were 36 healthy subjects (28 males and 8 females) who participated in the study.
Underwater disorientation was quantified by measuring the deviation of subjective vertical-pointing from the gravitational vertical, time to egress, and subjective reports of disorientation and ease of egress.
A repeated measure design was employed with seat position (SWET chair, METS™ window, and METS™ aisle) as the sole factor.
Results:
Subjective response data indicated that the degree of disorientation is rated significantly higher, and the ease of egress is rated worse from the two METS™ seat positions than in the SWET (p< 0.01).
The time to egress is longer from the two METS™ device is effective for inducing underwater disorientation as provoked by simulated helicopter ditching.
8. An Experiment to Examine the Ability to Detect the UEE™ Lighting System Underwater at Two Different Distances from the Eye [1999](PDF Abstract)
9. The Development of Emergency Breathing Systems (EBS)/Lifejacket System for the Royal Malaysian Air Force, R&D Report #0198 [1998] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.
The object of this study was to determine if the EBS would be a useful addition to the inventory of survival training equipment provided for helicopter passengers flying offshore. The conclusion was that the EBS was of great benefit to the escapee. Not only did it have a calming affect, but it provided the additional time necessary to escape, particularly if the escape path was cumbersome or partially blocked. A complete system was designed, tested, and flight qualified for the Royal Malaysian Air Force. In January 2001, the RMAF signed a contract for the EBS units and pocketry design.
10. The Effect of Wave Motion on Dry Suit Insulation and the Responses to Cold Water Immersion [1998] (Abstract)
Ducharme, M.B; Brooks, C.J.
The effect of wave motion on dry suit insulation and the responses to cold water immersion. Aviat Space Environ Med 1998; 69:957-64.
Six subjects who were each wearing a dry immersion suit system were immersed for 1 h in 16° celsius water in a number of different wave conditions, ranging from still water to 70 cm in height.
Physiological and physical parameters were measured in order to calculate the total thermal resistance of the suit system and its components.
Results:
None of the physiological parameters were affected significantly by the wave conditions, except for skin heat flux, which increased with wave height from 72.0 ±1.9 W ·m¯², at 0 cm of height, to 85.5 ± 2.9 W·m¯², at 70 cm of height.
Wave heights up to 70 cm decreased the insulation (including boundary layer) of the dry suit system by 14%, and the only component of the suit affected by the wave motion was the insulation of the water boundary layer, which decreased by 75%.
The body sites that were most affected by wave motion were the head and the trunk, with an average 4f5% decrement in suit system thermal resistance at those sites at wave heights of 9 to 70 cm.
No significant effect was observed at sites on the distal limbs.
Conclusion:
To simulate open ocean conditions in the laboratory, the standards must take the reduction of suit insulation into account.
11. Evaluation of a New Universal Jettison Mechanism for Helicopter Underwater Escape [1999] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Miller, L; Morton, S.; Baranski, J.
Evaluation of a new universal jettison mechanism for helicopter underwater escape. Aviat Space Environ Med 1999; 70-752-8.
To date, there is no standard jettison mechanism for doors, windows, or hatches in ditched helicopters.
A new Universal Escape Exit (UEE™) has been invented and the performance has been compared with two current in-service systems in a helicopter underwater escape trainer.
Method:
A total of 416 evacuations were conducted by 40 subjects in two experiments using the Survival Systems Limited’s underwater escape trainer.
Results:
The UEE™ had a distinct 2-s advantage to escape; and, in the majority of cases, was preferred to a rotating lever or a straight push out system.
Conclusions:
Further work should continue with UEE™ development for qualification in an operational helicopter.
12. The Abysmal Performance of the Inflatable Liferaft in Helicopter Ditchings, NATO RTO Conference Proceedings, San Diego [1998] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Potter, P.L.
The inflatable liferaft or dinghy was introduced into aircraft in the 1930s. This paper discusses the progress made with aviation life rafts since their inception in the mid 1930's up unitl application for helicopters operating in the offshore oil industry.
13. Options for Liferaft Entry After Helicopter Ditching [1998]
(Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Potter, P.L.; De Lange, D.; Baranski, J.V.; Anderson, J.
Options for liferaft entry after helicopter ditching. Aviat Space Environ Med 1998; 69:743-9.
Dry and wet evacuations were conducted by 24 male and 19 female subjects from the Nutec Super Puma Simulator into two different types of aviation liferaft.
Results:
Dry evacuation on the windward side is the method of choice.
The non-canopy raft is subjectively and objectively easier to enter both from the helicopter and the sea.
Conclusions:
The non-canopy raft is the raft of choice, the canopy raft needs to redesign to ensure that it always inflates the correct way and both rafts need a redesign of the painter anchor point.
Aircrew should have special training in open water after traditional pool training.
A helicopter ditching survival compass has been developed for training all who fly over water for a living.
14. Liferaft Evacuation from a Ditched Helicopter: Dry Shod vs. Swim Away Method [1997] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Potter, P.L.; Hognestad, B.; Baranski, J.
Liferaft evacuation from a ditched helicopter: dry shod vs. swim away method. Aviat Space Environ Med 1997; 68:35-40.
There were 23 male and 21 female subjects who conducted a series of evacuations from the NUTEC Super Puma helicopter simulator into an RFD heliraft in the Bergen Fjord.
The dry shod and swim-away methods were compared both on the windward and leeward side.
Results:
The dry shod method is the method of choice, although the swim-away method should be taught as an alternative in the event of imminent capsizing.
Irrespective of method, evacuation wherever possible should be on the windward side.
Conclusions:
Because it is critical for the aircrew to make a split-second decision concerning which method to use, they should have special training in open water after traditional pool training.
15. Helicopter Door and Window Jettison Mechanisms for Underwater Escape: Ergonomic Confusion! [1997] (Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Bohemier, A.P.
Helicopter door and window jettison mechanisms for underwater escape: ergonomic confusion! Aviat Space Environ Med 1997; 68:844-57.
There are 23 different door, hatch, and window release mechanisms identified in 35 types of helicopters that earn their living over water.
There is no standardization of the mechanism within each cockpit or among helicopter types, nor is there any standardization of the location relative to the operation, whether the mechanism matches the task or in which direction the door/hatch/window is jettisoned.
New regulations are needed by military and civilian authorities to address the ergonomic confusion.
16. The Ergonomics of Jettisoning Escape Hatches in a Ditched Helicopter [1993](Abstract)
Brooks, C.J.; Bohemier, A.P.; Snelling, G.R.
The ergonomics of jettisoning escape hatches in a ditched helicopter. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 1994; 65:387-95.
The first formal investigation of the problem of location, operation and jettison of escape windows and hatches of helicopters following ditching has been conducted in a new simulator. There were 48 aircrew who attempted 298 escapes using a variety of 24 escape routes and 9 different types of escape hatches. Overall results, while superfically indicating that the task was easy, in fact revealed many unforeseen problems.
Specifically, there was no standardization of hatches and levers, there were problems with location and operation of levers principally due to poor design, and an ergonomics study has not been conducted to investigate the problem.
Underwater escape training with hatches in position must be madatory for all who fly off-shore or over water for a living, and further research should be conducted to design a better standard hatch and jettison system.
The Canadian Navy and the Canadian offshore oil industry have implemented this.
As a result, this study led to the invention and patenting of the Universal Escape Exit by Survival Systems. It also led to a contract with the United States Coast Guard to fit their helicopters with emergency exit lighting systems.
17. Factors Affecting Egress from a Downed Flooded Helicopter - Canada Oil and Gas Lands Administration - Technical Report 109. [1993] (Abstract)
Bohemier, A.P.; Chandler, P.; Gill, S.
This investigation, sponsored by the Canada Oil and Gas Lands Administration, was conducted at Survival Systems Limited of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. The study was designed to assess the difficulty and/or attributes of the following factors that relate to underwater egress.
Phase 1 - Passenger’s seat position relative to exit
Phase 2 - Window exit mechanisms
Phase 2A- The Sikorsky S61 liferaft encasement exit
Phase 3 - Physical references as an aide-to-egress
Phase 4 - Visual aids
Phase 5 - Value of troop seating arrangement
The overall objective of this project was to document the effects of these parameters on a passenger’s ability to safely exit the helicopter, identify and define any difficulties or advantages involved, and where appropriate, suggest possible remedies.
18. Emergency Breathing System as an Aid to Egress from a Downed Flooded Helicopter - Canada Oil and Gas Lands Administration - Technical Report 108 [1990] (Abstract)
Bohemier, A.P.; Chandler, P.; Gill, S.
This study and the publication of this report were funded and managed by the Canada Oil and Gas Lands Administration. The laboratory work was undertaken by Survival Systems of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.
This investigation, sponsored by the Canadian Oil and Gas Lands Administration, was conducted at Survival Systems Limited of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia to asses the value of emergency breathing systems.
19. Why People 'Freeze' in an Emergency: Temporal and Cognitive Constraints on Survival Responses - Aviation, Space, and Enviromental Medicine - Vol. 75, No. 6, - June 2004 (Abstract)
20. The effect of training methods on egress time and performance from the Modular Egress Training Simulator (METS) [2006]
21. Civilian Helicopter Accidents into Water: Analysis of 46 cases, 1979-2006 [2008]